# 50. Self-delusion - the manipulation of self ## 50.5. Methodology/Refinements/Sub-species ### 50.5.15. The Barnum Effect This is the phenomenon where individuals believe descriptions of themselves to be tailor-made for them, but in fact, they are vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect provides a partial explanation for the acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, graphology, and some types of personality tests. A related and more general phenomenon is that of subjective validation. Subjective validation occurs when two unrelated or even random events are perceived to be related, because a belief, expectation, or hypothesis demands a relationship. Thus, people seek a correspondence between their perception of their own personality and the contents of their horoscope. Studies have shown that the Barnum effect is quite universal. It has been observed in many cultures. However, these studies have also found that victims tend to trust their manipulators if any of the following conditions are true: > - The subject believes that the analysis applies only to him or her, and thus applies their own meaning to the statements. > - The subject believes in the authority of the evaluator. > - The analysis lists mainly positive traits. > - Sex has also proven to play a role in how accurate the subject believes the description to be: Studies have shown that women are more likely than men to believe that a vague statement is accurate and about them. > - The method in which the Barnum personality profiles are presented can also affect the extent to which people accept them as their own. Barnum profiles that are more personalised - perhaps containing a specific person's name - are more likely to yield higher acceptability ratings than those that could be applied to anyone.